Asian Journal of Food Research and Nutrition

Gallbladder-related Symptoms, Awareness, and Dietary Counselling among Adults in East Champaran, Bihar: A Community-based Cross-sectional Study

Anil Kumar, Renu Rani Jaiswal — Fri, 04 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Gallbladder disorders, particularly gallstone disease, are important gastrointestinal conditions influenced by demographic, metabolic, lifestyle, and dietary factors. Community-level information on gallbladder-related symptoms, awareness, and dietary counselling remains limited in several regions of India, including Bihar.

Objective: To assess gallbladder-related symptoms, selected socio-demographic and anthropometric characteristics, awareness regarding dietary factors and gallbladder health, and receipt of dietary counselling among adults residing in East Champaran, Bihar.

Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 423 adults aged ≥18 years residing in East Champaran district, Bihar. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire covering socio-demographic characteristics, anthropometric characteristics, gallstone status, gallbladder-related symptoms, and awareness regarding dietary factors and gallbladder health. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise the data. Chi-square tests were used to examine associations between selected categorical variables, and multivariable logistic regression was performed for selected outcomes. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05.

Results: Among the 423 participants, 132 (31.2%) reported at least one assessed gallbladder-related symptom. Among symptomatic participants, indigestion after fatty meals (62.9%) and severe upper-right abdominal pain (59.1%) were the most frequently reported symptoms, followed by vomiting (35.6%), nausea (27.3%), and jaundice (26.5%). A previous diagnosis of gallstones was reported by 91 (21.5%) participants, of whom 59 (64.8%) reported ultrasound confirmation. Regarding awareness, 247 (58.4%) participants reported that food habits could affect gallbladder health, while 248 (58.6%) believed that reducing fatty-food consumption could reduce gallbladder-related problems. Overall, 199 (47.0%) participants reported having received dietary advice regarding gallbladder disease, whereas 224 (53.0%) had never received such advice. In multivariable analysis, previous gallstone diagnosis was strongly associated with reporting at least one gallbladder-related symptom (AOR=5.55, 95% CI: 3.31–9.31; p<0.001), while female sex was also associated with symptom reporting (AOR=1.66, 95% CI: 1.04–2.63; p=0.033). Awareness that food habits affect gallbladder health was independently associated with age (AOR=0.97 per year, 95% CI: 0.95–0.99; p=0.003), BMI (AOR=1.10 per kg/m², 95% CI: 1.03–1.17; p=0.006), and presence of at least one gallbladder-related symptom (AOR=3.17, 95% CI: 1.66–6.05; p<0.001).

Conclusion: Gallbladder-related symptoms were reported by a substantial proportion of participants, while more than half had never received dietary counselling regarding gallbladder disease. Symptom reporting and awareness of dietary factors were associated with selected participant characteristics. These findings highlight the importance of community-level health education, symptom awareness, and appropriate dietary counselling. Further studies using clinically verified gallstone status and representative sampling are warranted.

Functional and Proximate Properties of Enzymatic Protein-Derived Peptide Fractions from Cricket (Brachytrupes membranaceus) Protein Hydrolysates

F. A. Abdulsalam, A. T. Girgih, M. O. Eke — Sat, 05 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Aim: This study evaluated the proximate composition and functional properties of whole cricket protein meal (WCRIPM), defatted cricket protein meal (DCRIPM), and cricket protein hydrolysate (CRIPH) prepared from Brachytrupes membranaceus.

Study Design: A laboratory experiment compared the three cricket protein preparations.

Place and Duration of Study: The research was conducted in the laboratories of the Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Technology and Human Ecology, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. Crickets were harvested locally between April and July, and processing and analysis continued over the subsequent months.

Methodology: Whole cricket meal was prepared, defatted with acetone, and hydrolysed sequentially with pepsin and pancreatin. Proximate composition and selected functional properties were determined.

Results: Protein content increased from 61.0% in WCRIPM to 67.5% in DCRIPM and 79.9% in CRIPH, whereas fat content decreased from 16.9% to 1.40% and 1.30%, respectively. Water absorption capacity declined from 288.0% to 240.3%, oil absorption capacity from 235.4% to 180.2%, and bulk density from 0.63 to 0.48 g/cm³. Conversely, foaming capacity increased from 78.0% to 93.0%, foam stability from 83.0% to 97.0%, reconstitution index from 1.80 to 3.50 mL/g, and emulsifying capacity from 44.0% to 70.0%.

Conclusion: Defatting and enzymatic hydrolysis concentrated protein and altered functionality. The whole meal showed greater water- and oil-binding capacities, whereas CRIPH showed improved foaming, reconstitution, and emulsifying properties, indicating different potential food-formulation applications.

Assessment of Maternal Knowledge and Practices on Strategies for Reducing Malnutrition among Children (0–5 Years) in Umuahia North LGA, Abia State, Nigeria

Elekeh, Rosemary Ichita, Eze Zipporah Chinonyerem, Okonkwo Evelyn Ijeoma — Sat, 05 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Malnutrition among children under five years of age remains a major public health challenge in developing countries, contributing significantly to childhood morbidity, mortality, impaired growth, and poor cognitive development. Despite various nutrition interventions, inadequate maternal knowledge, poor feeding practices, and limited access to nutritious foods continue to increase the burden of malnutrition among young children in many Nigerian communities.

Objective: This study examined strategies for reducing malnutrition among children aged 0–5 years in Umuagu Ohuhu, Umuahia North Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria. Specifically, it assessed the socio-economic characteristics of mothers, evaluated their knowledge of malnutrition, identified the perceived effects of malnutrition on child health, and determined effective strategies for reducing childhood malnutrition.

Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional research design was adopted for the study. Data were collected from 384 mothers of children aged 0–5 years using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistical methods, including frequencies and percentages, were employed to analyse the data and present the findings.

Results: The findings revealed that the largest age group was 26–30 years; most respondents were married and had attained at least secondary school education. Regarding knowledge of malnutrition, 45.6% of respondents reported being only somewhat knowledgeable, while 50.8% correctly identified poor diet as the primary cause of malnutrition. The most commonly perceived effects of malnutrition were impaired cognitive development (55.5%) and delayed growth and physical development (40.4%). Respondents identified lack of knowledge about proper nutrition (64.3%), poor feeding practices (62.5%), and inadequate access to nutritious foods (58.3%) as the major contributors to childhood malnutrition within the community. Concerning intervention strategies, 50.0% of mothers considered nutrition education and counselling for mothers to be the most effective strategy for reducing malnutrition, while 32.8% recommended the provision of food supplements to vulnerable children.

Conclusion: The study demonstrated that although mothers were generally aware of the adverse consequences of childhood malnutrition, considerable gaps remain in their understanding of its causes and prevention. A sustainable reduction in malnutrition among children aged 0–5 years requires strengthened community-based nutrition education, improved infant and young child feeding practices, enhanced household food security, and increased access to affordable, nutritious foods.

Recommendations: The study recommends that government agencies, non-governmental organisations, and primary healthcare providers intensify community-based nutrition education programmes, strengthen maternal nutrition counselling services, improve access to food supplementation programmes, and implement policies that enhance household food security to reduce the burden of childhood malnutrition in Umuagu Ohuhu and similar communities.

Investigate Morbidity Patterns and Nutritional Challenges among Pregnant Adolescent Girls in Sierra Leone: A District-Level Analysis

Sat, 19 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Pregnant adolescents in Sierra Leone face intersecting morbidity and nutritional challenges that may vary across geographic settings.

Aim: The study investigates morbidity patterns and nutritional challenges among pregnant adolescent girls in Sierra Leone at the district level (Freetown, Kambia, and Moyamba).

Methodology: The study used a mixed-methods approach integrating quantitative and qualitative research designs, in which 502 pregnant adolescent girls aged 13–19 years were randomly selected. Data were collected using two primary instruments: a structured questionnaire and anthropometric measurement tools. Qualitative methods, including in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, were also employed. Descriptive statistics, frequencies, and percentages were used in the analysis, and the data were presented in tabular form.

Results: The results revealed that malaria represents a major maternal health challenge with significant implications for pregnancy outcomes. Freetown and Moyamba reported the highest malaria transmission, while Kambia reported the lowest among pregnant adolescent girls. Typhoid fever affects nearly one-quarter of pregnant adolescents, representing a major but often overlooked maternal health burden. Kambia has the highest typhoid prevalence, contrasting with its lowest malaria prevalence. Moyamba has the highest prevalence of anaemia among the districts studied, while Freetown reports a moderate prevalence.

The chi-square test indicates a statistically significant association between disease condition and study location (χ² = 36.23, df = 4, p < 0.001). This means that the distribution of abdominal pain, malaria, and typhoid was not the same across Freetown, Kambia, and Moyamba. Financial constraints emerged as the most significant barrier, particularly in Kambia, where nearly seven in ten respondents reported affordability issues. Knowledge gaps about nutrition were most pronounced in Moyamba, highlighting the need for targeted education and awareness campaigns. Cultural and religious dietary restrictions were more evident in Freetown, illustrating the influence of social practices on food consumption. Food taboos restricting nutrient-rich foods such as eggs, meat, and fish have been reported among pregnant girls, with pregnant adolescent girls in Kambia and Moyamba reporting greater difficulties than those in Freetown.

Conclusion: Pregnant adolescents face compounded health risks from infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, and pregnancy-related vulnerabilities. Malaria and typhoid remain major threats, while abdominal pain may signal undiagnosed conditions.

Assessment of Physicochemical Characteristics and Sensory Quality of Palm Oil Commercially Available in Nasarawa State Markets, Nigeria

Ayele Esther Luba, Adgidzi E. A., Stephen Sule — Mon, 21 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study evaluated the physicochemical and sensory quality of palm oil obtained from major markets in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Nine palm oil samples were systematically collected from three markets in each of the Northern, Southern, and Western Senatorial Districts. Physical properties (moisture content, specific gravity, viscosity, refractive index, smoke point, fire point) and chemical properties (acid value, iodine value, peroxide value, free fatty acid, saponification value, unsaponifiable matter, beta-carotene) were analysed using standard AOAC and AOCS methods. Sensory evaluation was conducted using a 9-point hedonic scale by twenty semi-trained assessors. Data were analysed using ANOVA (p < 0.05). Moisture content ranged from 0.21% to 0.67%, and all nine samples exceeded the ≤0.2% limit. Specific gravity (0.91–0.94) exceeded SON/NIS standards (0.897–0.907). Peroxide values (0.84–4.23 meq/kg) and acid values (0.33–0.94 mg KOH/g) were within permissible limits. Free fatty acid values recalculated from the reported acid values using the stated equation ranged from 0.151% to 0.429% and were below the 3.5% limit stated in Table 2. Iodine values (44.85–63.30 I₂/100 g) were outside the recommended 45–53 I₂/100 g range in all samples: eight were above the upper limit and Keffi (44.85 I₂/100 g) was below the lower limit. Reported beta-carotene values ranged from 0.62 to 59.40 mg/kg and were below the stated 500–700 mg/kg range; however, the exceptionally low values require verification against the original analytical records before definitive interpretation. Sensory acceptability scores ranged from 6.45 to 7.60. Significant variations (p < 0.05) were observed across locations. Palm oil quality in Nasarawa State showed considerable variation in several measured properties, while the beta-carotene results require analytical verification. Improved processing practices, quality monitoring, and verification of the beta-carotene calculations are recommended.

Nutritional Improvement of Ugba through LAB Starter Culture: Impact on Antinutrients and Minerals during Storage

P. A. Ome, E. U. Agbo, S. E. Omogo — Thu, 24 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study aimed to assess the nutritional improvement and the impact of lactic acid bacteria cultures on the antinutritional factors and mineral composition of ugba during storage. Three LAB species, Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and L. fermentum, previously isolated and characterised from ugba, were used in three pairwise combinations: L. plantarum + L. brevis, L. plantarum + L. fermentum, and L. brevis + L. fermentum. A spontaneously fermented sample served as the control, while raw, unfermented African oil bean slices were included as a baseline. The prepared samples were fermented for 72 h and stored at 26–33 °C for 6 days, with analyses performed at 2-day intervals. The antinutrients (phytate, oxalate, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and tannin) and minerals (potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and sodium) were determined using standard analytical procedures. Data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance. The antinutritional-factors and mineral contents in the samples differed significantly (p<0.05) during storage. The antinutritional factors of ugba samples inoculated with LAB starter culture were lower than those of their uninoculated counterparts at the end of the fermentation process and storage period. Ugba inoculated with L. plantarum + L. brevis had the lowest values for all the antinutrients investigated during storage. Ugba inoculated with L. plantarum and L. brevis recorded the highest values for potassium (35.71 mg/100 g), phosphorus (216.20 mg/100 g) and sodium (34.45 mg/100 g), whereas ugba inoculated with L. brevis and L. fermentum recorded the highest values for calcium (287.52 mg/100 g) and magnesium (189.14 mg/100 g). The study showed that selected LAB starter cultures can reduce measured antinutritional factors and modify mineral composition during ugba fermentation and storage, supporting their potential for improving the nutritional profile and process consistency of the product.

Antifungal Properties of Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Pentaclethra macrophylla, Ricinus communis and Zea mays

C. V. Uzoh, P. C. Igwe, C. O. Uzoh-Chukwuma, A. A. Adeshina, L. I. Uwanta — Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Locally fermented foods can harbour lactic acid bacteria (LAB) with antimicrobial activity that may be useful in food biopreservation. This study investigated the antifungal activity of LAB isolated from Pentaclethra macrophylla, Ricinus communis and Zea mays against selected fungal contaminants. LAB isolates were cultured and characterised using standard microbiological procedures, while fungal isolates were obtained from contaminated plant materials and identified by their macroscopic and cultural characteristics. Antifungal activity was assessed under in vitro agar conditions, and inhibition zones were recorded. The susceptibility pattern differed among the fungal isolates and LAB tested. Aspergillus fumigatus was inhibited by several LAB isolates, with inhibition-zone diameters ranging from 10 to 17 mm among the responding isolates; recorded values included 10 mm for Lactococcus lactis, 15 mm for Streptococcus sp., and 17 mm for Lactobacillus sp. Lactobacillus sp. also inhibited Aspergillus flavus, while Lactococcus lactis inhibited Rhizopus sp. Aspergillus niger was inhibited by Lactococcus lactis and Lactobacillus salivarius. Pediococcus sp. produced no measurable inhibition against the tested fungi under the assay conditions. Overall, the findings demonstrate differential in vitro antifungal activity among the LAB–fungus combinations. Selected isolates may therefore have potential as natural food-grade biopreservative candidates, although their effectiveness requires confirmation in relevant food matrices under appropriate processing and storage conditions before practical application.

Proximate and Nutritional Composition of Bush Cherry Maesobotrya barteri (Baill Hutch) Fruit Types

N. T. Nwagbaraocha, H. A. Okorie, U. N. Okorie, C. M. Ahukaemere, S. U. Onwudike — Sat, 26 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Bush Cherry (Maesobotrya barteri (Baill) Hutch) is an indigenous woody fruit species with potential nutritional value. This study evaluated the proximate, mineral and vitamin composition of two fruit types, white and red, collected from natural forests in selected communities across Imo, Abia and Anambra States, South-eastern Nigeria. Fresh fruits were separated into pulp and seeds and analysed for proximate constituents, selected minerals and vitamins. The white fruit-type pulp and seed contained 68.90% and 64.01% carbohydrate, respectively, compared with 56.87% and 54.56% in the corresponding red fruit-type fractions. Seeds contained higher fat and protein levels than the pulps, whereas the pulps contained higher fibre levels. Phosphorus concentrations in the white and red fruit-type pulps were 312.10 mg/100 g and 307.01 mg/100 g, respectively. Vitamin C concentrations were 351.40 mg/100 g in the white fruit-type pulp and 379.15 mg/100 g in the red fruit-type pulp. Selenium was detected in the pulps but not in the seeds, while vitamin E was not detected in the pulps but was present in the seeds. The findings demonstrate compositional variation between fruit types and fruit fractions and provide baseline data for further evaluation of M. barteri in relation to nutritional utilisation, selection, improvement and domestication. Additional replicated studies are required before broad dietary or processing recommendations are made.

Value-Addition of Guava Jam with Dates as a Health Promoting Functional Food

Manika Ray, Priyanka Shankar — Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Guava jam is a widely consumed fruit preserve, while date syrup offers a natural sweetening ingredient that may support value addition. This study developed guava jam with partial substitution of refined sugar by date syrup and evaluated its sensory, physicochemical, nutritional, antioxidant, and microbiological characteristics. Four formulations were prepared: control (0% date syrup), T1 (10%), T2 (20%), and T3 (30%). Sensory quality was assessed using a nine-point hedonic scale, and the formulation with the highest overall acceptability was selected for further analyses. The 10% date syrup formulation achieved the highest sensory scores. The optimised jam contained 28.25% moisture, 67.86% carbohydrate, 2.45% protein, 0.75% fat, and 0.94% ash. Vitamin C content was 36.32 mg/100 g. Total phenolic content was 52.7 mg GAE/g, while DPPH antioxidant activity was 102.52 mg/g ascorbic acid equivalent. The initial total plate count was 2.34 × 10² CFU/g. Higher date syrup substitution levels produced a more intense flavour and darker colour and received comparatively lower sensory preference. The findings indicate that partial replacement of refined sugar with date syrup can produce an acceptable guava jam with measurable nutritional and antioxidant-related characteristics. However, the microbiological result represents only the initial post-processing condition and does not establish product shelf life.

Effect of Storage Conditions and Maize Variety on the Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count and pH of Kunun-zaki

Lasbry Chidi Nnodim, Jane Chiabuotu Onyeche, Chiamaka Onuegbu — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Kunun-zaki is a spontaneously fermented cereal beverage whose microbiological quality may vary with raw material and storage conditions. This study evaluated the effects of maize variety (yellow and white) and storage condition (day 0, four days at 4 °C, and four days at an ambient 26 °C) on total heterotrophic bacterial count (THBC) and pH using a split-plot design with two production batches per variety. THBC ranged from 4.405 to 7.875 log₁₀ CFU/mL, while pH ranged from 3.220 to 3.970. Storage condition accounted for 80.7% of the variation in THBC, the variety × storage interaction for 13.1%, and maize variety for 5.9%. On day 0, kunun-zaki from white maize had a THBC 1.700 log₁₀ CFU/mL higher than that from yellow maize. After four days, the varietal differences were no greater than 0.240 log₁₀ CFU/mL and were equivalent within ±0.5 log₁₀ CFU/mL. THBC declined under both storage conditions, with the greatest reductions occurring under refrigeration. Ambient storage lowered pH by 0.695–0.750 units, whereas refrigeration lowered it by 0.080–0.135 units. Maize variety had no significant effect on pH, and pH was not significantly correlated with THBC. These findings indicate that, over the four-day period examined, storage condition contributed substantially more to variation in THBC than maize variety.

Development and Quality Evaluation of a Pineapple–Costus afer (Opete) Extract Composite Drink

B. C. Nwokeke, C. U. Obiesie, E. C. Ogugua — Mon, 05 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Pineapple is widely used in beverage production because of its desirable sensory characteristics and nutritional value. The incorporation of underutilised plant materials such as Costus afer (Opete) may improve selected nutritional attributes of fruit-based beverages; however, its inclusion can also influence physicochemical properties and sensory acceptability. Information on the quality characteristics of pineapple–Costus afer composite drinks remains limited. This study developed and evaluated composite beverages produced from pineapple juice and Costus afer (Opete) extract at different blending ratios. The study investigated the effect of C. afer incorporation on the physicochemical properties, mineral and vitamin C composition, and sensory acceptability of the beverages. Five formulations were prepared: PCA₀ (commercial fruit juice), PCA₁ (90:10 pineapple:C. afer), PCA₂ (80:20), PCA₃ (70:30) and PCA₄ (60:40). The beverages were evaluated for pH, titratable acidity, total soluble solids, total solids, specific gravity, viscosity and turbidity, while calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, iron, magnesium, zinc and vitamin C were determined using standard analytical procedures. Sensory evaluation was conducted using a 9-point hedonic scale with 30 semi-trained assessors. Increasing C. afer incorporation increased pH from 3.42 in PCA₀ to 3.71 in PCA₄, viscosity from 2.18 to 2.48 mPa·s and turbidity from 8.42 to 54.18 NTU, while titratable acidity decreased from 0.62 to 0.50%, total soluble solids from 12.10 to 10.90 °Brix and total solids from 13.42 to 11.94%. Specific gravity ranged from 1.04 to 1.05. The incorporation of C. afer also influenced the mineral and vitamin C composition of the beverages. Calcium increased from 14.25 mg/100 g in PCA₁ to 15.87 mg/100 g in PCA₄, while vitamin C increased from 20.57 to 36.43 mg/100 g. Sensory evaluation showed that PCA₁ had the highest overall acceptability (6.60), followed by PCA₂ (6.20), whereas PCA₄ recorded the lowest score (4.60). The findings demonstrate that C. afer can be incorporated into pineapple-based beverages to enhance selected nutritional attributes and modify important physicochemical properties. However, excessive incorporation may adversely affect sensory quality. The 90:10 pineapple–C. afer formulation (PCA₁) provided the most favourable overall balance between nutritional enhancement, physicochemical characteristics and consumer acceptability.

From Local Food Perceptions to Destination Advocacy: Understanding Tourists’ Experiences of Goan Cuisine

Edgar D’Souza — Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Aims: This study examined associations among tourists’ perceptions of local Goan food, perceived destination sustainability, local food experience, tourist satisfaction and destination advocacy.

Study Design: A quantitative, cross-sectional survey using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM).

Place and Duration of Study: Goa, India; data were collected from October 2025 to February 2026 at selected tourist locations and food establishments offering Goan cuisine.

Methodology: A total of 432 usable responses were obtained from domestic and international tourists who had consumed local Goan food during their visit. A structured self-administered questionnaire measured five constructs using a five-point Likert scale. Measurement reliability and validity and the structural relationships among the constructs were assessed using PLS-SEM.

Results: All five hypothesised relationships were statistically significant: local food perception → perceived destination sustainability (β = .642, P < .001), local food perception → local food experience (β = .284, P < .001), perceived destination sustainability → local food experience (β = .398, P < .001), local food experience → tourist satisfaction (β = .719, P < .001), and tourist satisfaction → destination advocacy (β = .742, P < .001). The model explained 41.2%, 37.9%, 51.7%, and 55.1% of the variance in the respective endogenous constructs.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that perceptions of local cuisine are associated with destination-related outcomes through the sequence of relationships specified in the tested model. The study highlights the importance of authenticity, meaningful culinary experiences, and credible sustainability communication in leveraging Goan cuisine for destination development.

Statistical Analysis of Microbiological Shelf Life of Paneer Using Microbial Growth and Food-safety Thresholds

Krishtina Baruah, Jonali Gogoi — Thu, 15 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Paneer is a fresh dairy product that may experience microbial growth and quality changes during storage. The present study examined changes in paneer quality using a dataset obtained from the Mendeley Data repository. The dataset contained 70 observations covering 14 storage days, from Day 0 to Day 13. Total plate count (TPC), pH, moisture content, and overall acceptability were studied using descriptive statistics. Linear regression was used to examine the relationship between storage time and TPC, and Pearson correlation was used to study the relationships between TPC and other quality parameters. The microbial counts were converted to estimated CFU/g and compared with the microbiological limits given by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). Reliability analysis was performed using the FSSAI upper limit as the failure threshold. The results showed that TPC increased from 2.29 log₁₀⁡ CFU/mL on Day 0 to 5.72 log₁₀⁡ CFU/mL on Day 13, while pH, moisture, and overall acceptability decreased during storage. The regression model showed a strong relationship between storage time and TPC, with an R² of 98.69%. TPC also showed strong negative correlations with pH, moisture, and overall acceptability. Based on the FSSAI criteria, Day 7 was the last acceptable observed day, while the model estimated 99% reliability at about 7.13 days and 95% reliability at 7.45 days. The study shows that statistical analysis can help describe microbial deterioration and storage behaviour of paneer.

Sensometric Comparison of Household-Scale Modified and Traditional Spontaneously Fermented Pineapple Beverages (Tepache)

L. C. Nnodim, M. A. H. China — Fri, 16 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Tepache is a spontaneously fermented pineapple beverage whose sensory identity arises from an uninoculated consortium of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. The consumer consequences of substituting West African botanicals for its spices are unknown. This study compared a household-scale Modified tepache containing West African botanicals with a Traditional formulation containing cinnamon, clove and star anise. Forty consumers, 20 per product in independent groups, rated 16 attributes on 0 –10 line scales and four hedonic dimensions on 9-point scales for a Modified tepache fortified with Hibiscus sabdariffa, Xylopia aethiopica, Monodora myristica, Piper guineense and African lemon, and a Traditional formulation with cinnamon, clove and star anise. Mean intensities ranged from 2.90 to 7.80 (Modified) and 3.90 to 8.20 (Traditional). Of 20 variables tested, only sweetness survived Benjamini–Hochberg correction (3.60 ± 2.37 against 6.60 ± 2.72; q = 0.016; Hedges g = −1.15; Cliff's δ = −0.615). Colour intensity was higher in the Modified beverage (7.30 ± 1.98 against 5.75 ± 1.71; q = 0.098). All six a priori fermentation markers, namely depressed sweetness with elevated tanginess, lingering acidity, fermented aroma, alcoholic note and carbonation, indicated more advanced fermentation in the Modified beverage (sign test, p = 0.031), without global response-style bias (p = 0.454). Sweetness was the dominant driver of overall liking (ρ = 0.64; VIP = 1.769) and the only predictor retained under L1 penalisation, whereas colour intensity ranked last (VIP = 0.033). Overall liking was 5.30 ± 1.49 against 6.10 ± 1.41 (q = 0.287), and no attribute met the equivalence criterion. These findings identify sweetness as the principal formulation factor associated with consumer acceptance in the tested tepache beverages.

Impact of Food Assistance Programs on Household Food Security in Ahoada West Lga, Rivers State, Nigeria

Mercy A. H. China, Ibuchim Nwenee Ihunwo — Sat, 17 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study evaluated the impact of food assistance programmes on household food security in Ahoada West Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria. The study used a descriptive cross-sectional research design combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. The population comprised beneficiary and non-beneficiary households in the study area, and a sample of 183 respondents was selected using a multistage sampling technique. Structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to collect data. Household food security and dietary diversity were measured using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), respectively. Descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, chi-square analysis and regression analysis were performed at the 0.05 significance level. The results showed that household food insecurity was prevalent among respondents, with a mean HFIAS score of 11.8 ± 5.6. Only 15.4% of households were food secure, while 64.8% were moderately or severely food insecure. HFIAS scores were significantly lower and dietary diversity scores significantly higher among beneficiary households than among non-beneficiary households. Regression analysis also indicated that participation in food assistance programmes significantly predicted household food security outcomes. The study further found that households adopted coping strategies, including reducing meals, borrowing food and consuming cheaper foods, in response to economic and environmental pressures, such as rising food prices and flooding. The study concluded that food assistance programmes contributed positively to household food security and dietary diversity among beneficiaries in Ahoada West LGA. It recommends expanding food assistance coverage, improving targeting and distribution systems, and integrating livelihood and nutrition-sensitive interventions to enhance sustainable household food security outcomes.

Optimization of Anthocyanin Extraction from Banana Bract (Musa paradisiaca) and their Potential Application as a Natural Colorant in Cordial Beverages

Kurai Gareth Mawoneke, Violet Angel Dzinotyiwei, Raphael Kwiri, Felix Mujuru — Thu, 22 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Banana bracts represent a potential source of natural pigments for beverage applications.

Aims: To optimise anthocyanin extraction from Musa paradisiaca bracts and assess extract stability as a natural colourant in a cordial beverage.

Study Design: An experimental optimisation and stability study using a Box-Behnken design, followed by extract characterisation and shelf-life assessment in a beverage matrix.

Place and Duration of Study: Department of Food Processing Technology, Harare Institute of Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe, from September 2025 to May 2026. Banana bracts were collected from Mutasa District, Honde Valley, Mutare, Zimbabwe (approximately 18.7167 °S, 32.9667 °E).

Methodology: A Box-Behnken design was employed, varying temperature (40–70 °C), time (30–60 min), solvent-to-solid ratio (10–30 mL/g), and stirring speed (200–600 rpm). UV-Vis spectroscopy was used to characterise the pigment profile. UV-Vis spectroscopy characterised the pigment profile. Ammonium sulfate aqueous two-phase separation was used to evaluate anthocyanin enrichment. Thermal degradation kinetics were assessed between 60 and 90 °C. Extracts were incorporated into a cordial matrix, and colour stability was evaluated using Arrhenius extrapolation and polymeric colour measurements.

Results: A linear model (R² = 0.54), adequate for factor screening despite moderate predictive power owing to inherent biological variability in bract tissues, identified solvent-to-solid ratio as the only significant factor (F = 24.73, p < 0.0001), yielding a verified TAC of 212.21 ± 8.20 mg C3G/100 g dry weight. Non-acylated cyanidin glycosides dominated the pigment profile. Aqueous two-phase separation caused only 7.4% monomeric anthocyanin loss and improved the enrichment index from 6.94% to 9.02%. Thermal degradation followed first-order kinetics (60–90 °C), with an activation energy of 75.6 kJ/mol. In the cordial, the predicted shelf life (80% colour retention) was 42 days at 25 °C and 233 days at 4 °C. Polymeric colour reached 83.1% at 55 °C by day 28.

Conclusion: Banana bract anthocyanins demonstrate adequate colour stability in an acidic, high-sugar beverage under refrigeration, supporting further development as a natural colourant.

GC–MS Profiling of 2,4-DNPH Derivatized Carbonyl Compounds in Fresh and Reused Frying Oils

Ezenwali, Moses Obinna, Ngwu, Nonso Emmanuel, Ezenwali, Ogochukwu Vivian — Fri, 23 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Repeated use of vegetable oil for frying has been reported as a potential contributor to many health hazards affecting human populations, particularly in developing countries where regulatory oversight may be weak or limited. Thermal oxidation of vegetable oils during repeated deep-frying promotes the formation of reactive carbonyl compounds, including aldehydes and ketones, which are associated with oxidative stress and related health risks. This study screened for short-chain aldehydes and other carbonyl compounds in derivatized re-used deep-fried culinary oil used by fast-food vendors, oil extracted from akara (bean cake) and fresh oil as a reference using GC-MS profiling. The three oil samples, namely fresh oil, oil extracted from akara and re-used deep-fried oil (100 mL each), were collected from roadside fast-food vendors in Enugu State, Nigeria. The samples were derivatized with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to form hydrazone derivatives, thereby improving volatility and detectability during GC-MS profiling. GC-MS analysis revealed greater abundance and diversity of aldehydes in re-used deep-fried oil than in fresh oil, including trans-2-decenal (0.10% area), trans-2-tridecenal (0.05% area), 2,4-decadienal [tt-DDE] (0.08%), cis-9-hexadecenal (0.07%), cis-1-chloro-9-octadecene (0.11%), hexanal and nonanal (0.74%). Akara oil showed pronounced alteration, characterised by 2-propenoic acid ester (31.47%), dodecanoic acid (28.68%), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (14.38%) and myristic anhydride (6.79%). Fresh oil showed minimal carbonyl presence. The observed increase in viscosity, foaming, altered taste, odours and darkening in colour are physicochemical changes associated with these culinary practices and indicate alteration of the fatty acid composition of the oil through hydrolysis, oxidation, polymerisation and tautomerisation. The chromatographic profiles indicate the presence of established toxic compounds and some novel compounds whose toxicities remain unknown. These findings indicate that repeated deep-frying markedly increases the formation of toxic carbonyl compounds, highlighting potential public health concerns associated with consumption of snacks prepared with re-used deep-fried oil.

Association of Dietary Patterns, BMI and Lifestyle Behaviours with Fatty Liver Disease Severity among Patients of Tertiary Care Hospital in Nashik, India: A Cross-Sectional Study

Samrudhi Mahesh Khaire, Anushree Rajendra Khaire — Sat, 24 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Fatty liver disease is an increasingly important liver disorder associated with dietary patterns, excess body weight, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity and other lifestyle-related factors. Dietary transitions characterised by increased consumption of refined foods, processed products, sweets, sugar-containing beverages and energy-dense foods may contribute to hepatic fat accumulation and metabolic dysfunction. Aim: The present study examined the food consumption patterns, body mass index (BMI), lifestyle behaviours and distribution of fatty liver severity among patients attending a tertiary care hospital in Nashik, Maharashtra.

Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional observational study was conducted among 100 patients aged 18–60 years diagnosed with fatty liver disease. The sample comprised 50 patients with Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (AFLD) and 50 with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD). Purposive sampling was used. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire covering sociodemographic characteristics, clinical history, anthropometric measurements, lifestyle behaviours and a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Fatty liver severity was categorised into Grade I, Grade II and Grade III. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise the findings. The study methodology specified χ² testing for categorical associations; however, grade-specific cross-tabulations and inferential results were not reported in the study.

Results: Seventy percent of participants were male and 30% were female. The BMI distribution showed that 34% of participants were in the 25–27 kg/m² range, 15% in the 28–30 kg/m² range, 6% in the 31–33 kg/m² range, 6% in the 34–36 kg/m² range and 1% in the 37–39 kg/m² range. Dietary assessment demonstrated frequent consumption of cereals, vegetables, pulses and dairy products alongside regular consumption of bakery products, sweets, fast foods, soft drinks and packaged foods. Cereals were consumed daily by 72% and vegetables by 60%, whereas bakery products were consumed daily by 34%, sweets by 9%, fast foods by 8%, and soft drinks by 23%. Among the 50 patients with AFLD, 48% reported daily alcohol consumption and 48% occasional consumption. Grade II fatty liver was the most common severity category (51%), followed by Grade I (36%) and Grade III (13%).

Conclusion: The findings demonstrate the coexistence of elevated BMI ranges, unhealthy food consumption practices, alcohol exposure and inadequate physical activity among patients with fatty liver disease. Grade II was the predominant severity grade. The findings support the clinical importance of dietary assessment, weight management, physical activity and lifestyle modification in fatty liver disease. However, definitive statistical associations between individual dietary or lifestyle variables and Grade I–III severity require analysis of the original patient-level dataset.

Pasting and Rheological Properties of Fermented and Oven-Dried Millet–Guinea Corn Ogi Fortified with Chia Seed Flour

Nwachukwu Chinwe Adaobi, Nwokeke Blessing Chibuzo — Sat, 31 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study examined the pasting and rheological characteristics of fermented, oven-dried millet–guinea corn ogi formulations containing different proportions of chia seed flour. Five formulations (T1–T5) were assessed using rapid viscoanalyser and rheological measurements after reconstitution. Pasting variables included peak, trough, breakdown, final and setback viscosities, peak time and pasting temperature. Apparent viscosity, consistency index, flow behaviour index and yield stress were determined for the reconstituted samples. Across the formulations, peak viscosity declined from 1845.50 ± 12.40 RVU in T1 to 1519.60 ± 16.30 RVU in T5, whereas breakdown viscosity decreased from 747.20 ± 8.15 to 481.10 ± 6.85 RVU. Trough and final viscosities also decreased, while setback viscosity, peak time and pasting temperature increased slightly. Following reconstitution, apparent viscosity rose from 842.50 ± 12.60 to 1236.80 ± 21.30 mPa·s, the consistency index increased from 4.86 ± 0.14 to 7.24 ± 0.22 Pa·sⁿ, and yield stress rose from 3.21 ± 0.08 to 5.18 ± 0.13 Pa. The flow behaviour index declined from 0.61 ± 0.02 to 0.51 ± 0.01, indicating shear-thinning behaviour in all samples. These patterns suggest reduced viscosity development during heating alongside increased resistance to flow after reconstitution. Because cereal proportions varied with chia inclusion, the observed differences reflect formulation changes rather than the isolated effect of chia flour.

Spatial Distribution of Potentially Toxic Elements and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Edible Crabs and Prawns from Selected Niger Delta Aquatic Ecosystems: Human Health Risk Assessment

Sat, 31 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study investigated potentially toxic elements (PTEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and associated health risks in edible crabs and prawns collected from Qua Iboe Estuary, Iko River, Stubbs Creek, Cross River Estuary and Uta Ewa Creek, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Ten PTEs were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry, while PAHs were analysed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard index (HI), benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent concentration (BaP-eq) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) were evaluated. Iron was the most abundant element, followed by zinc. Uta Ewa Creek recorded the highest concentrations of the measured PTEs, whereas Qua Iboe Estuary generally recorded the lowest. Mean concentrations of all ten elements were higher in crabs than in prawns. Total concentrations of 16 PAHs in crabs ranged from 238 to 476 µg/kg, while the seven measured PAHs in prawns ranged from 92 to 189 µg/kg. Pyrene and fluoranthene were prominent in both organisms. BaP-eq values ranged from 42.509 to 91.205 µg/kg in crabs and 27.464 to 55.031 µg/kg in prawns. Adult HI values were below 1, whereas child HI values exceeded 1 for crabs at all locations and for prawns at Cross River Estuary and Uta Ewa Creek. The highest ILCR estimates occurred in crabs from Uta Ewa Creek. The findings demonstrate spatial and species-related differences in contaminant burdens and highlight the importance of monitoring seafood quality in the Niger Delta.

Nutritional Assessment of Oil Extracted from Doughnuts Prepared Using Locally Processed Vegetable Oil and Industrially Processed Butter

Itohowo Okon Akpan, Itoro Nyakno Willie , Uwem Udosen Ubong — Wed, 11 Nov 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study assessed the physicochemical characteristics, fatty-acid composition and elemental profiles of lipid materials associated with doughnuts prepared using locally processed vegetable oil and industrially processed butter. Four samples were analysed: locally processed oil (K₁), industrially processed butter (P₁), used oil collected after frying (D), and oil extracted from the fried doughnut (H). Physicochemical indices were determined using standard methods, fatty-acid methyl esters were analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, and elemental concentrations were measured by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry. One-way analysis of variance and Tukey’s HSD were used to examine sample differences, and nutritional contributions were estimated for 100 g of the analysed lipid material. K₁ recorded the highest acid value (7.01 mg KOH/g), free fatty-acid content (3.51%) and saponification value (428.44 mg KOH/g), whereas H had the highest peroxide value (53.00 meq/kg). P₁ exhibited the highest iodine value (34.28 g I₂/100 g). Twenty-three fatty-acid methyl esters were identified. Lauric, myristoleic and myristic acids were prominent in K₁, D and H, while P₁ contained higher concentrations of palmitic acid and the reported linoleic/oleic acid methyl ester. Differences among fatty-acid classes were not statistically significant; polyunsaturated fatty acids had the largest effect size (η² = 0.270). Potassium was the most abundant measured element, while sodium was highest in P₁. These results provide a comparative characterisation of the analysed lipid fractions without attributing all observed differences exclusively to frying.

Impact of Pomegranate and Other Nutraceutical-rich Plant By-product Fortification on the Physicochemical, Rheological, Nutritional, Antioxidant, and Sensory Properties of Ice Cream

Samara Samir, Amina Zedan, Mohamed Arafa, Dina A. Amer, Ashraf S. Bakr — Wed, 11 Nov 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Ice cream is a popular dairy product with high consumer acceptance, making it an excellent carrier for functional ingredients. This study investigated the effects of pomegranate peel powder (PPP; Punica granatum L.) on the physicochemical, rheological, nutritional, antioxidant and sensory attributes of buffalo-milk ice cream. A control formulation and three formulations containing 0.5% (T1), 1.0% (T2) or 1.5% (T3) PPP (w/w) were prepared. The powder was characterised for proximate composition, mineral content and antioxidant activity, while the ice cream formulations were assessed for specific gravity, weight per gallon, overrun, melting resistance, compositional attributes, bioactive compounds and sensory quality. Selected properties were monitored during eight weeks of frozen storage at −18 °C. Increasing PPP concentration raised specific gravity from 0.739 in the control to 0.942 in T3 and reduced overrun from 39.77 to 26.24. Fresh T3 ice cream had a total solids content of 39.01 compared with 36.01 in the control and showed greater melting resistance. The reported DPPH radical-scavenging values increased from 5.12 in the control to 46.72 in T3, although these values declined during storage. The highest total sensory score was obtained by T1 (95.34), compared with 90.64 for the control and 85.97 for T3. These findings indicate that PPP can enhance selected compositional, structural and antioxidant properties of ice cream; however, sensory acceptability decreased at the highest inclusion level. The results support balancing functional enrichment and sensory quality when selecting a formulation.

Comparative Review of Wheat Flour and Cassava Flour: Potential of Fortified Cassava Flour as a Sustainable Substitute

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Wheat flour has exceptional bread-making functionality because hydrated gluten proteins form a cohesive, extensible gas-retaining network, but dependence on wheat can create economic and supply vulnerabilities in tropical regions where cassava is widely grown. Cassava flour offers high starch yield, agronomic resilience and opportunities for local value addition, yet conventional root flour is intrinsically low in protein and several micronutrients, lacks gluten, and requires effective control of cyanogenic compounds. This critical narrative review compares wheat flour and cassava flour and evaluates whether fortified cassava flour can function as a nutritionally adequate and environmentally defensible substitute. Literature published from January 2000 to 17 July 2026 was selected from multidisciplinary, agricultural, food-science and biomedical scholarly sources, with older standards and foundational evidence retained when necessary. The evidence indicates that cassava flour is not a universal drop-in replacement for wheat flour. In yeast-leavened bread, substitution commonly weakens dough rheology and loaf structure as wheat is displaced, although cassava variety, particle properties, heat-moisture treatment, fermentation, hydrocolloids and added gluten can materially alter performance. Nutritional fortification with soybean, mushroom or leafy-vegetable ingredients can raise protein or micronutrient density, while provitamin A biofortified cassava has human efficacy evidence for improving vitamin A status. These strategies, however, address different limitations and should not be treated as interchangeable. Sustainability claims are similarly conditional: cassava can support climate resilience, local sourcing and import substitution, but drying energy, transport of perishable roots, cultivation practices and processing infrastructure can dominate environmental performance. The most defensible pathway is therefore targeted, standards-based substitution in products and regions where cassava has a comparative agronomic or economic advantage, combined with nutrient fortification, cyanide control, functionality optimisation and life-cycle assessment. Fortified cassava flour has substantial potential as a partial wheat substitute and, in selected product categories, as a wheat-free base, but sustainability and nutritional adequacy must be demonstrated at the formulation and supply-chain levels rather than assumed from crop identity alone.

Maternal Age and Human Milk: Effects on Lactation Outcomes, Nutritional Composition, Bioactive Components, and Clinical Implications—A Structured Narrative Review

Thu, 22 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Births are rising at both ends of the reproductive age range. Births to women aged 35 years or older are increasing in high-income settings, and adolescent pregnancy remains common in low- and middle-income countries. Maternal age is often assumed to affect lactation, but whether it independently affects milk quantity or composition has not been synthesised for clinicians caring for infants, children and adolescent mothers.

Objectives: To evaluate the effects of maternal age on (i) secretory activation, milk production and lactation continuation; (ii) milk macronutrients, micronutrients, hormones and bioactive components; and (iii) mechanisms, clinical implications and evidence gaps for offspring outcomes in childhood and adolescence.

Methods: A narrative review was prepared in accordance with SANRA guidance. PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus were searched for human studies, systematic reviews and guidelines published between August 2001 and August 2026, supplemented by hand-searches of reference lists. Direct maternal-age comparisons were synthesised separately from indirect nutritional, metabolic and developmental evidence, and every reference was verified against its PubMed record.

Results: Older age (≥30–35 years) was associated with delayed onset of lactogenesis II in individual cohorts and in a Chinese meta-analysis (pooled OR 2.19). A broader meta-analysis, however, produced confidence intervals that included 1. Adolescent mothers initiated breastfeeding less frequently and stopped earlier; in one cohort 84% of initiators had stopped by 6 months. Colostrum fat was higher in mothers ≥35 years in Israeli, Greek and Serbian cohorts. A Brazilian three-group study instead found the highest colostrum lipid at 20–34 years. These differences largely disappeared after the first 1–2 weeks. Adolescent mature milk was not consistently deficient in macronutrients. Older mothers had higher colostrum retinol and β-carotene, and the fatty-acid profile differed with age. Evidence for age effects on milk hormones was sparse: only leptin showed a weak association with lower concentrations, whereas maternal BMI was the dominant determinant. No age-specific, milk-mediated pathway to adverse childhood or adolescent outcomes was established.

Conclusion: Maternal age modestly modifies early milk composition and more consistently affects the timing and continuation of lactation. It can help identify mother–infant dyads requiring early lactation assessment but cannot diagnose poor milk quality. Support, supplementation and fortification should be guided by measured problems and infant requirements, not chronological age alone.

Occurrence, Advanced Detection Methods and Mitigation Strategies of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Food Systems: A Critical Review

Fri, 30 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Mycotoxins remain among the most persistent chemical hazards in cereal-based food systems because toxigenic fungi colonise grain in the field, multiply during drying and storage, and leave heat-stable metabolites that survive much of conventional processing. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A and the T-2 and HT-2 toxins are the principal regulated contaminants, while modified forms and emerging metabolites such as enniatins and Alternaria toxins widen the range of exposure that current controls are designed to capture. This critical narrative review examines occurrence, detection and mitigation together, on the premise that weaknesses in any one domain limit the value of advances in the others. Literature was identified through structured searches of multidisciplinary and biomedical indexes, supplemented by institutional risk assessments, legislation and citation tracking, and was appraised qualitatively for design, analytical rigour, representativeness and relevance. The synthesis indicates that contamination above analytical detection limits is far more common than older global estimates implied, that co-occurrence is the norm rather than the exception, and that the heaviest burdens fall on subsistence consumers of maize and other staple grains in tropical and subtropical regions where regulatory oversight seldom reaches household grain. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem or high-resolution mass spectrometry has become the confirmatory reference, but sampling variance, matrix effects and the shortage of standards for modified forms continue to dominate measurement uncertainty. Rapid immunochemical, aptamer-based, spectroscopic and imaging platforms frequently report impressive sensitivity, yet few have been validated on naturally contaminated grain under realistic operating conditions. Among mitigation options, prevention-oriented measures supported by field-scale evidence, such as atoxigenic biocontrol, timely drying, hermetic storage and kernel sorting, outperform decontamination technologies whose efficacy, by-product toxicity and effects on grain quality remain insufficiently characterised. Health outcomes beyond aflatoxin-associated liver cancer are less firmly established, as illustrated by discordance between observational and randomised evidence on child growth. Progress therefore depends on linking validated, fit-for-purpose detection with predictive risk models and on evaluating mitigation through exposure and health endpoints rather than laboratory reduction percentages alone.